Comprehensive review of life cycle assessment methodologies for passenger vehicles
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Vol. 9 No. 1 (2024)
Keywords:
-
Life Cycle Assessment, LCA, vehicle life cycle, electric vehicle, environmental impact
Abstract
Purpose: This paper aims to advance knowledge in the methodology of environmental life cycle assessment (LCA) for vehicles and to discern potential environmental and health burdens associated with combustion and electric vehicles. Methodology: A systematic review was conducted using the Scopus database, with a focus on papers published between 2005 and November 2023. The search was refined to include only English-language publications investigating passenger vehicles, resulting in a final corpus of 75 studies. Results: The review revealed that LCA conclusions for automotive vehicles can vary widely depending on the specific study's scope, methodology, and goals. Many studies emphasize the need for a holistic approach considering various drive technologies, production aspects, and local geographical conditions. Theoretical contribution: This paper contributes to the field of environmental science and sustainability by synthesizing the current state of knowledge on the environmental impact of vehicles across their entire life cycle. The findings highlight the importance of a nuanced and comprehensive approach to understanding and mitigating the environmental externalities of transportation. Practical implications: The insights from this review can inform policymakers, manufacturers, and consumers in their decisions regarding sustainable transportation solutions. By understanding the key areas of concern and improvement opportunities across the entire life cycle of vehicles, stakeholders can work towards a more environmentally responsible and sustainable transportation system.
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References
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Bouter, A., Hache, E., Ternel, C., & Beauchet, S. (2020). Comparative environmental life cycle assessment of several powertrain types for cars and buses in France for two driving cycles: “worldwide harmonized light vehicle test procedure” cycle and urban cycle. The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment, 25, 1545–1565. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11367-020-01756-2
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Heidary, H., El-Kharouf, A., Steinberger-Wilckens, R., Bozorgmehri, S., Salimi, M., & Golmohammad, M. (2023). Life cycle assessment of solid oxide fuel cell vehicles in a natural gas producing country; comparison with proton electrolyte fuel cell, battery and gasoline vehicles. Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments, 59, 103396. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seta.2023.103396
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Koroma, M. S., Costa, D., Philippot, M., Cardellini, G., Hosen, M. S., Coosemans, T., & Messagie, M. (2022). Life cycle assessment of battery electric vehicles: Implications of future electricity mix and different battery end-of-life management. Science of the Total Environment, 831, 154859. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.154859
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Asaithambi, G., Treiber, M., & Kanagaraj, V. (2019). Life Cycle Assessment of Conventional and Electric Vehicles. In D. Szalay, A. Gosztom, L. Sípos, & T. Taligás (Eds.), International Climate Protection (pp. 161–168). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-03816-8_21
Bauer, C., Hofer, J., Althaus, H.-J., Del Duce, A., & Simons, A. (2015). The environmental performance of current and future passenger vehicles: Life cycle assessment based on a novel scenario analysis framework. Applied Energy, 157, 871–883. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2015.01.019
Bouter, A., Hache, E., Ternel, C., & Beauchet, S. (2020). Comparative environmental life cycle assessment of several powertrain types for cars and buses in France for two driving cycles: “worldwide harmonized light vehicle test procedure” cycle and urban cycle. The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment, 25, 1545–1565. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11367-020-01756-2
Buberger, J., Kersten, A., Kuder, M., Eckerle, R., Weyh, T., & Thiringer, T. (2022). Total CO2-equivalent life-cycle emissions from commercially available passenger cars. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 159(1364-0321), 112158. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2022.112158
Cox, B., Bauer, C., Mendoza Beltran, A., van Vuuren, D. P., & Mutel, C. L. (2020). Life cycle environmental and cost comparison of current and future passenger cars under different energy scenarios. Applied Energy, 269, 115021. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2020.115021
Danilecki, K., Smurawski, P., & Urbanowicz, K. (2023). Optimization of Car Use Time for Different Maintenance and Repair Scenarios Based on Life Cycle Assessment. Applied Sciences, 13(17), 9843–9843. https://doi.org/10.3390/app13179843
El Hafdaoui, H., Jelti, F., Khallaayoun, A., Jamil, A., & Ouazzani, K. (2024). Energy and environmental evaluation of alternative fuel vehicles in Maghreb countries. Innovation and Green Development, 3(1), 100092–100092. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.igd.2023.100092
Elgowainy, A., Burnham, A., Wang, M., Molburg, J., & Rousseau, A. (2009). Well-To-Wheels Energy Use and Greenhouse Gas Emissions of Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles. SAE International Journal of Fuels and Lubricants, 2(1), 627–644. https://doi.org/10.4271/2009-01-1309
Franzò, S., & Nasca, A. (2021). The environmental impact of electric vehicles: A novel life cycle-based evaluation framework and its applications to multi-country scenarios. Journal of Cleaner Production, 315, 128005. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.128005
Fusco Rovai, F., da Cal Seixas, S. R., & Keutenedjian Mady, C. E. (2023). Regional energy policies for electrifying car fleets. Energy, 278, 127908–127908. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2023.127908
Heidary, H., El-Kharouf, A., Steinberger-Wilckens, R., Bozorgmehri, S., Salimi, M., & Golmohammad, M. (2023). Life cycle assessment of solid oxide fuel cell vehicles in a natural gas producing country; comparison with proton electrolyte fuel cell, battery and gasoline vehicles. Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments, 59, 103396. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seta.2023.103396
ISO 14000: A series of international, voluntary environmental management standards, guides and technical reports developed by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO).
ISO 14040:2006 - Environmental management Life cycle assessment Principles and framework.
ISO 14044:2006 - Environmental management Life cycle assessment Requirements and guidelines.
Ivanov, R., Evtimov, I., Ivanova, D., Staneva, G., Kadikyanov, G., & Sapundzhiev, M. (n.d.). Possibilies for Improvement the Ecological Effect of Battery Electric Vehicles Using Renewable Energy. Proceedings of 7th International Conference on Energy Efficiency, and Agricultural Engineering (EE&AE), (10.1109/EEAE49144.2020.9279077), 1–5. 12-14 November 2020, Ruse, Bulgaria .
Jursova, S., Burchart-Korol, D., & Pustejovska, P. (2019). Carbon Footprint and Water Footprint of Electric Vehicles and Batteries Charging in View of Various Sources of Power Supply in the Czech Republic. Environments, 6(3), 38. https://doi.org/10.3390/environments6030038
Karabasoglu, O., & Michalek, J. (2013). Influence of driving patterns on life cycle cost and emissions of hybrid and plug-in electric vehicle powertrains. Energy Policy, 60, 445–461. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2013.03.047
Koroma, M. S., Costa, D., Philippot, M., Cardellini, G., Hosen, M. S., Coosemans, T., & Messagie, M. (2022). Life cycle assessment of battery electric vehicles: Implications of future electricity mix and different battery end-of-life management. Science of the Total Environment, 831, 154859. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.154859
Koroma, M. S., Costa, D., Puricelli, S., & Messagie, M. (2023). Life Cycle Assessment of a novel functionally integrated e-axle compared with powertrains for electric and conventional passenger cars. Science of the Total Environment, 904, 166860–166860. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.166860
Kucukvar, M., Onat, N. C., Kutty, A. A., Abdella, G. M., Bulak, M. E., Ansari, F., & Kumbaroglu, G. (2022). Environmental efficiency of electric vehicles in Europe under various electricity production mix scenarios. Journal of Cleaner Production, 335, 130291. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.130291
Li, S., Cao, Q., Li, J., & Gao, Y. (2018). Fuel Cycle Environmental Assessment for Electric Vehicles in China. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 186, 012024. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/186/4/012024
Li, Y., Ha, N., & Li, T. (2019). Research on Carbon Emissions of Electric Vehicles throughout the Life Cycle Assessment Taking into Vehicle Weight and Grid Mix Composition. Energies, 12(19), 3612. https://doi.org/10.3390/en12193612
Liu, J., Daigo, I., Panasiuk, D., Dunuwila, P., Hamada, K., & Hoshino, T. (2022). Impact of recycling effect in comparative life cycle assessment for materials selection - A case study of light-weighting vehicles. Journal of Cleaner Production, 349, 131317. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.131317
Małek, A., Karowiec, R., & Jóżwik, K. (2023). A review of technologies in the area of production, storage and use of hydrogen in the automotive industry. The Archives of Automotive Engineering – Archiwum Motoryzacji, 102(4), 41–67. https://doi.org/10.14669/am/177038
Mayyas, A., Omar, M., Hayajneh, M., & Mayyas, A. R. (2017). Vehicle’s lightweight design vs. electrification from life cycle assessment perspective. Journal of Cleaner Production, 167, 687–701. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.08.145
Messagie, M., Boureima, F., Matheys, J., Sergeant, N., Timmermans, J-M., Macharis, C., & Van Mierlo, J. (2010). Environmental performance of a battery electric vehicle: a descriptive Life Cycle Assessment approach. World Electric Vehicle Journal, 4(4), 782–786. https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj4040782
Messagie, M., Boureima, F.-S., Coosemans, T., Macharis, C., & Mierlo, J. (2014). A Range-Based Vehicle Life Cycle Assessment Incorporating Variability in the Environmental Assessment of Different Vehicle Technologies and Fuels. Energies, 7(3), 1467–1482. https://doi.org/10.3390/en7031467
Mitropoulos, L. K., Prevedouros, P. D., & Kopelias, P. (2017). Total cost of ownership and externalities of conventional, hybrid and electric vehicle. Transportation Research Procedia, 24, 267–274. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trpro.2017.05.117
Mohammadi Ashnani, M. H., Miremadi, T., Johari, A., & Danekar, A. (2015). Environmental Impact of Alternative Fuels and Vehicle Technologies: A Life Cycle Assessment Perspective. Procedia Environmental Sciences, 30, 205–210. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proenv.2015.10.037
Moreira, J. R., Pacca, S. A., & Goldemberg, J. (2022). The reduction of CO2e emissions in the transportation sector: Plug-in electric vehicles and biofuels. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Transition, 2, 100032. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rset.2022.100032
Moro, A., & Lonza, L. (2018). Electricity carbon intensity in European Member States: Impacts on GHG emissions of electric vehicles. Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment, 64, 5–14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trd.2017.07.012
Nandola, Y., Krishna, U., Pramanik, S., Himabindu, M., & Ravikrishna, R. V. (2023). Well-to-Wheel Analysis of Energy Efficiency & CO2 emissions for Hybrids & EVs in India: Current Trends & Forecasting for 2030. Research Square. https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-3086492/v1
Noshadravan, A., Cheah, L., Roth, R., Freire, F., Dias, L., & Gregory, J. (2015). Stochastic comparative assessment of life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions from conventional and electric vehicles. The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment, 20(6), 854–864. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11367-015-0866-y
Notter, D. A., Gauch, M., Widmer, R., Wäger, P., Stamp, A., Zah, R., & Althaus, H.-J. (2010). Contribution of Li-Ion Batteries to the Environmental Impact of Electric Vehicles. Environmental Science & Technology, 44(17), 6550–6556. https://doi.org/10.1021/es903729a
Onat, N., Kucukvar, M., & Tatari, O. (2014). Towards Life Cycle Sustainability Assessment of Alternative Passenger Vehicles. Sustainability, 6(12), 9305–9342. https://doi.org/10.3390/su6129305
Ou, X., Yan, X., & Zhang, X. (2010). Using coal for transportation in China: Life cycle GHG of coal-based fuel and electric vehicle, and policy implications. International Journal of Greenhouse Gas Control, 4(5), 878–887. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijggc.2010.04.018
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Authors
Szumska, E. (2024). Comprehensive review of life cycle assessment methodologies for passenger vehicles. Journal of Sustainable Development of Transport and Logistics, 9(1), 53–71. https://doi.org/10.14254/jsdtl.2024.9-1.5
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